Although history commonly used to refer to events which happened earlier in time, but “history” in academic study is either the study of the past or the product of our attempts to understand the past, rather than the past itself

The history of India begins with human settlement that has been confirmed to over 9000 years ago in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. However, evidence of human activity shows the presence of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago in Indian subcontinent

Generally Stone Age/Ice Age is divided into following 3 eras-

The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek literally meaning “Old age of the stone” or “Old Stone Age.” This period is also known as Ice Age. The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools or objects found in nature. Man during this period was essentially a food gatherer. He was totally dependent on nature for his food supply requirement that contains animals and edible plants. In course of time he learnt to control fire which helped in improving the pattern of living in many ways. Men were organized in small wandering groups known as Bands. It was towards the end of the Paleolithic period that the modern human being (Homo sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 BC. Robert Bruce foot was the first person to discover a Paleolithic site in India in 1863. The tools were usually made of hard rock ‘quartzite’ and therefore Paleolithic man in India is also called “Quartzite Man.” Few important sites of this era in India are Kashmir Valley, Sohan Valley, Potwar region and Luni in Rajasthan. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic

Mesolithic literally means “Middle Stone Age.” It was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. There was rise in temperature and the climate became warm and dry. The climatic changes affected human life and brought about changes in fauna and flora. The technology of producing tools also underwent change and the small stone tools were used. Man was predominantly in hunting/gathering stage but there was shift in the pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to fishing and fowling. Man started to live in bigger groups called Tribes. Bagor (Rajasthan) on the river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India. Chotanagpur Plateau and Garo Hills are also counted in prominent Mesolithic sites

It is considered as last phase of Stone Age. This phase refers to transition in land use. Food gathering and hunting societies started to settle in village and cultivation became prime work in their life. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural characteristics. Stone Age was followed by Bronze/Copper Age

In this phase human being discovered copper and used it for making tools and for other known purposes. This phase refers to a process of cultural development and transmission of ideas on small scale. Indus valley civilization flourished on bank of Indus in North-West Asia is considered as 1^st and most important civilization in South-Asian History

The sensational discoveries made at Harappa in West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind has revolutionized idea of ancient Indian history. Indus valley civilization of India is even superior to that of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Indus-Valley people were well-acquainted with the use both of cotton and wool. The numerous specimens of pottery, seals, bracelets etc reveal that arts and crafts flourished. The people lived a very comfortable life in well built houses and baths. The streets were all well planned and drains regularly drained out. It was essentially urban civilization. The merchant class contributed to the general prosperity and trade contacts seem to have been established with the Sumerian [Bahrain] and Mesopotamian [Iraq] civilization of those times. Sir John Marshall the eminent Indologist came up with name of this civilization as Indus valley because it was settled around river Indus

This is 1^st discovered site of Indus valley by eminent Indologist Sir John Marshall in 1921 at the bank on Ravi. The Indus civilization was originally called Harappan civilization after this site. A grain house and proof of water transportation founded at this site

Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank of the Indus. This city was discovered by Mr. Rakhal Das Bennerji in 1922. Mohenjodaro is the largest of all the Indus cities and has a population estimated to between 41,000 and 35,000. The Great Bath place of Mohenjodaro is the most important public place measuring 39 feet (length) x 23 feet (breadth) x 8 feet (depth). Located at the centre of the citadel it is remarkable for beautiful brick work. Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. Archeologist Wheeler discovered a monumental like temple and administrative units.

Chanhudaro lies on the left bank of the Indus about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro. No citadel had been discovered here so this is the only exceptional site in this case. A small pot was discovered at Chanhudaro which was probably an inkpot. Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked

Kalibanga (Rajasthan) was on the banks of the river Ghaggar which dried up centuries ago. It is one of two Indus cities which have both proto-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. In its proto-Harappan phase the fields were ploughed. But in the Harappan phase they were not ploughed but dug up. It is discovered by Amalanand Ghosh in 1951.

Traces of the remains of massive brick walls around both the citadel and the lower town have been discovered here. Archaeologists discovered two platforms with fire altar suggesting the practice of cult of sacrifice. Leg bone of elephant was also found at Kalibanga

It was only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people. Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC). The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmadabad. Lothal is at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Fire altars indicating the probable existence of a fire cult have been found. Evidence for the use of horse comes from a doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse. Impressions of cloth are noticeable on some of the sealing found here. This site was discovered by S.R. Rao in 1954.

Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of the now extinct Saraswati River. It has evidence of having both proto Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. It shares almost all the common features of Indus cities such as town planning, grid system, drainage system and the like. Site discovered by R.S. Bisht in 1973.

Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann of Kutch. It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been found. It must have been another port city though no docking facilities as at Lothal have been found here

Dholavira (Gujarat) excavated is in the Kutch district. It is the latest Indus city discovered in India and also one of the largest sites of the civilization. The excavation work was carried by R.S Bisht and his team in 1990-91. It shares almost all the common features of Indus cities such as town planning, grid pattern, drainage system and elaborates fortification. The unique feature of this site is its division in three sections as compare to two parts in other sites. J.P. Joshi in 1967-68 had a pivotal contribution in discovery of this site

The most significant characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its urbanization. The cities show evidence of an advanced sense of planning and organization. Each city was divided into the citadel area where the essential institutions of civic and religious life were located and the residential area where the urban population lived. In the citadel the most impressive buildings were the granaries which were store -houses. The town was extremely well planned. The street ran straight and at right angles to each other following the grid system. The rectangular town planning was unique to the Harappan and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The streets were very wide and the houses built of burnt bricks lined both sides of the street. In Egypt and Mesopotamia dried or baked bricks were used. The houses were of varying sizes which suggest class differences in Harappan society. A well laid drainage system kept the cities clean

Trade with neighboring civilizations like Mesopotamia and Sumerian was in vogue. There was prevailed barter system of exchange but various kind of seals also used for same purpose. Lothal was main port at that time. The Harappan cultivated wheat and barley the two main food crops. Peas and dates were also grown. In addition sesame and mustard were grown and used for oil. However the people cultivated rice as early as 1800 BC in Lothal. The Harappan’s were the earliest people to grow cotton. Irrigation depended on the irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sind.

The various occupations in which people were engaged spanned a wide range. Spinning and weaving of cotton and wool. Goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones and metal workers made tools and implements in copper and bronze

** Copper was main metal used by people because iron was not known to them at that time

***Main types of seals are the square type with a carved animal and inscription and rectangular type with inscription only

***Cow and Lion were not known. Ragi was also not known to the Indus people

Clay figures of the Mother Goddess as the symbol of fertility have been found- these were worshipped by the people. A seated figure of a male god carved on a small stone seal was also found. The seal immediately brings to our mind the traditional image of Pasupati Mahadev. Certain trees seem to have been treated as sacred such as pipal. They also held the bull sacred

Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish, varieties of the human form etc. This script is not deciphered yet. The language of the Harappan’s is still unknown and must remain so until the script is read

Historians have different opinions regarding the causes of the decay and disappearance of the Harappan culture. Historians are of the view that the decline of the Indus Civilization was not the result of a single event; it was a slow decline and a result of combination of factors like natural disaster and Aryan invasion etc

In this phase human being discovered iron and used it for making tools and for other known purposes. On the basis of available radiocarbon dates it was suggested that iron working might have begun in Malwa {M.P.} around 1100 BC. After that various communities became familiar with wide use of iron

The Harappan civilization was followed by Vedic or Rig-Vedic culture which was completely opposite to it. The Vedic culture was founded by the Aryans. They were immigrants and arrived in India between 2000 and 1500 BC. The origin of the Aryans is still an unsettled affair. Historians have following different views on the origin and migration of Aryans to India-

Aryans originally lived in Central Asia. This theory was propounded by Prof Max Muller a German scholar of comparative languages. He stated that the ancestors of the Indians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Germans and the Celts must have lived together originally

This theory was put forwarded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.  Tilak in his book ‘Arctic Home in the Vedas’ opined that the original home of the Aryans was a place of extreme cold. The Vedas refer to days and nights lasting for 6 months which are found in Arctic region

According to the eminent historians A C Das and K M Munshi the Aryans originally belonged to the Sapt-Sindhu or Punjab. This point of view was put forward by A C Das in his book Rig Vedic India. He says that all the plants, rivers, crops and animals mentioned in Rig-Veda and other ancient books were found in ancient Punjab. The geographical conditions in Rig-Veda points out to this region. But this theory is not convincing. If the Aryans had been indigenous inhabitants of the Sapt Sindhu area there would have been no need for them to desert such a fertile area and go to other parts. Aryans were unaware of animals such as elephant and lion which were found mainly in India. This proves that Aryans were foreigners.

According to Swami Dayanand Saraswati the original home of the Aryans was Tibet. This view has been expounded by them in the Satyartha Prakash. According to him Aryans worshipped the sun and fire as it was extremely cold in Tibet. All the trees and animals mentioned in the Rig Veda were found in Tibet.

The theory generally accepted these days is that the original home of the Aryan was in south-east Europe. According to MacDonnell the common trees like the oak, the birch and the willow and the common animals like the horse and the cow with which the ancestors of the Aryans were familiar could in those days be found only in southern Europe. This theory is also disputed by some western scholars

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India the greater part of northern and north-western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians. They later migrated to southward direction of India